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Elk

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North American elk was an important food source for the Kitimat (Haisla), Kitsumkalum, Tagish, Chilcotin, Blackfoot, Red River Ojibwa (Chippewa), and Chipewyan and in winter for the Nootka (Nuu-chah-nulth) [1-7]. North American elk was also important to the Temagami Band of Ojibwa [8], as well as Assiniboine, Rapid, Blackfoot and Cree [9].

North American elk was regularly available to the Coeur d’Alene, Chinookan of Lower Columbia River, Kalapuya, Siuslaw, Coosan, Coast Salish, Kitsumkalum, Kutenai, Okanagan, Spokane, Fort Nelson Slave (Dene), Sioux, Potawatomi, Anishinabek, Algonquian, Mohawk, Plains Ojibwa / Bungi (Chippewa) [8, 10-25]. The Nootka (Nuu-chah-nulth) also had access to North American elk, which they referred to as Kloh-nym or wapiti [26]. While the Mid-Columbia Indians did not have access to these animals, their vocabulary indicates knowledge of wapiti [27]. North American elk were accessible in the parklands area for the Red Earth Cree; however they were not abundant and were not frequently sought [28]. In contrast, North American elk was one of the most common animals hunted by the Western Woods Cree and were commonly sought by the Sekani in the 1800s [29, 30]. The Coast Salish, Kwakiutl (Kwakwaka'wakw), Sanpoil, Quileute, and Plains People supplemented a mostly marine or bison diet with North American elk [22, 31-38]. North American elk was an important resource for the Thompson (N'laka'pamux), Chilcotin and Shuswap until herd numbers declined in the nineteenth century, and almost became extinct in the early twentieth century [3, 39-41]. The Coeur d’Alene changed their focus from North American elk to bison with the introduction of horses [38]. The Quileute hunted North American elk to a greater extent before reservations were established [42]. Large amounts of North American elk remains were found on the Southern Washington coast indicating it was a significant animal for prehistoric people living in this area [43]. North American elk remains were also found at Locarno Beach and the Strait of Georgia Culture sites [44].

North American elk was regionally available to peoples living in British Columbia [45, 46]. In particular, the animal was abundant in areas inhabited by the Kwakiutl, Coast Salish, and Beaver [47-49]. The Northern Coast Salish, People of Puget Sound, and Stalo had limited access to North American elk while the Salish Lake people had no access to North American elk therefore it was not commonly eaten by these groups [22, 50-52]. The Coast Salish only killed adult North American elk [31].

North American elk could be hunted throughout the year; however, fall was the main hunting season [23, 53, 54]. Although the Katzie hunted North American elk at all times of the year the main season was June [55]. The Nootka of Vancouver and Flaherty Island killed North American elk in winter [56]. Flathead hunted North American elk when bison hunting season was over [57]; indeed, North American elk was commonly pursued when bison or pronghorn were unavailable [58, 59]. Kyuquot often hunted North American elk in place of sea mammals in winter [60].

North American elk was hunted with the use of arrows, snares, spears, calls, guns, nooses, blinds, decoys, traps on trails, spring-traps, dogs, and pitfalls [12, 14, 31, 36, 40, 41, 48, 55, 56, 61-66]. The strategies used depended on the number of hunters, distance from camp, time of year and size of the herd [18]. The Interior Salish summoned North American elk with small devices made of bone or grass; Flathead, Coast Salish and Shuswap made whistles; Kalispel attracted North American elk by imitating calf calls [41, 57, 67-69]. In winter, when men could move easily on snowshoes, North American elk were chased into deep snow, where they had difficulty maneuvering [2, 56, 70, 71]. Stalking animals was commonly practiced: men followed North American elk until they were tired and then moved in for the kill [57, 72]. In contrast, the Spokane were prohibited from stalking animals or killing them while they were drinking at a spring [18]. Odor was an important aspect of hunting, sometimes a hunter would bath in a sweathouse, remove his clothing, or continuously travel downwind of the North American elk so the animal would not pick up the human scent [14, 56].

Communal hunting drives took place to ambush North American elk, capture them in enclosures, nets, barricades, and between mountains, or send them off cliffs and into water [18, 32, 59, 63, 67]. Fall North American elk hunting involved constructing permanent tree stands and low stone walls to drive the animals into certain desired locations [18]. The Kutenai, Flathead, and Plateau people used corals to catch large numbers of North American elk [59]. Lower Kutenai and Plains cultures chose a leader who would select the day, location, and directions for a collective hunt [17, 73]. Generally, the younger men and boys or women and children acted as beaters, driving the North American elk towards the hunters while the older men waited with arrows to shoot and kill them [10, 59, 73]. During successful communal hunts where all community members participated, enough meat for the entire season could be acquired [10, 21, 73]. North American elk were traditionally hunted with bows and arrows, until guns were introduced [32, 56, 74, 75]. Bows were made from yew wood, and the arrowhead was made from stone, bone, or copper [32, 56]. The Coast Salish used arrows that detached easily from the shaft, reducing damage to the animal [69].

The Coast Salish preferred to wait for North American elk to come out into the open instead of tracking them in dense forest, so that the animals could be chased into the water and easily speared or stabbed [31]. Another strategy used was hunting North American elk at night from canoes in groups; one man held the torch while another man waited to shoot when they caught a gleam from the eyes of the animals drinking water [66, 76]. The Plains Ojibwa (Bungi) tracked North American elk until they were tired before they moved in to make a kill [16]. In general, animals were stalked in spring and winter [23].

Nootka preferred the taste of North American elk meat to black-tailed deer meat [77]. While they hunted North American elk throughout the year, they were considered best in October and November when they were fatter. Dogs were often used to track North American elk, especially in winter. Weapons were traditionally made from North American elk horns, until the introduction of iron. Men hunted in small groups making provisionary camps. North American elk were normally killed and butchered on site and the meat was immediately dried and smoked over fires. The bone marrow was considered a delicacy [26].

North American elk meat was often boiled [9]. Roasted, steamed or boiled North American elk was commonly consumed by the Coast Salish [76]. Some meat was eaten immediately and the rest was preserved and stored for winter [10, 14, 51, 69]. Leftover meat was preserved by drying or smoking and equally divided [10]. Sun-dried meat was sliced thinly, while smoked meat was thicker [14]. Kutenai women and children participated in skinning and preparing North American elk for a feast after a successful hunt [10]. Young North American elk head was roasted carefully by hanging it over a fire [78]. North American elk rectum was washed, stuffed with berries and cooked over a fire. This dish was considered a specialty worthy of the chief [58]. Other parts consumed included North American elk lungs, brain, head, kidneys, eyes, marrow and pancreas [79]. 

In addition to a source of nourishment, North American elk provided important raw materials for garments and other uses [11, 51]. Women usually tanned skins and Katzie men were responsible for dressing the thick North American elk hides [35, 55, 80]. Hides were scraped of hair, washed, and stretched. When they were dry they were smoked, soaked in a warm brain water mixture, scraped, stretched and smoked again before they were ready to make garments, footwear or sacs [14]. North American elk skins were used to make the medicine woman’s summer ceremonial robe and moccasins [1, 55, 58]. The Coast Salish valued the thick North American elk skin for its strength and ability to stop arrows from penetrating the garment, making North American elk hide an ideal material with which to make battle armor [31]. The sinews, bones, and teeth were also used for various objects and the long ribs could be used to make sleds for children [31, 58]. North American elk canine teeth were extremely valuable and were used by women as decoration [1, 58].

The Anishinabek believed in connections between themselves and their prey, therefore they asked permission from the spirits before hunting North American elk; this was done by participating in rituals, fasting, and prayer [12]. North American elk meat was highly prized by the Crow people; a hunter left North American elk bodies on the doorsteps of his future aids to gain favor [81]. Similar to the customs for white-tailed deer, men who dreamt of successful hunts were said to have North American elk power, and were aided by all hunters to prepare for a collective drive. The leader, who possessed hunting powers, initiated the preparatory activities. Preparations included placing burned moccasins and feathers in the entrance of a coral, which prevented the North American elk from escaping. Moss was also spread around the vicinity attracting the North American elk to enter. Some of the rituals entailed sweating, cleaning weapons, and planning strategies. The women did not generally hunt, but they often helped in all cooking, preparation, transportation, and processing tasks [18]. North American elk were known as wats·ix to the Tlingit, which was the same word used for caribou [82].

References

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The North American elk (Cervus elaphus) is a large hoofed mammal native to temperate zones, between 30 and 60°N, of North America and Eurasia, where it is called red deer. Elks were once the most widespread North American deer ranging almost coast to coast, but are now found primarily in western mountainous regions. Elk and red deer populations have been widely trans-located and re-introduced throughout the world. In Canada, wild elk populations are present in all provinces west of Quebec and in theYukon Territory. North American elk are frequently subdivided into three or four subspecies including Rocky Mountain elk, Roosevelt elk distributed along the West Coast, Manitoban elk found in forested, parkland areas of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, and Tule elk restricted to California.

Like in other members of the same family, including deer (Odocoileus spp.), moose (Alces alces), and caribou (Rangifer tarandus), velvet covers male antlers as they grow in late spring and summer, then is rubbed off and shed in later summer prior to the autumn mating season referred to as the rut. Antlers are shed in winter, well-after the completion of the rut. Unlike other deer, elk and caribou have distinctive canine teeth on their front upper jaws, called ivory teeth, tusks, whistlers, or forbs, but they are much more pronounced and visible in elk than in caribou. The common name elk likely comes from the early European settlers who associated the large size of the animal to moose, which are generally called elk in Europe. Wapiti, the standard French common name and an alternative English common name comes from a Cree word meaning “white rump”.

North American elk have a dark brown head, neck, and underside contrasting with their light brown body and almost white rump. Elk are smaller than moose, but larger than other deer. Adult elk typically weigh 241 kg, but large bulls can exceed 450 kg. Male nutritional status, age, and body size affect antler size. Large, mature bulls can have antlers that exceed 1 m in width and 12 kg in weight. Elk antlers are not palmated; a main beam projects up and back from the head, with front tines projecting forward and back tines projecting up. Antlers serve as an important sexual display, rank indicator, and weapon for bulls actively attracting and defending harems of females during the autumn rut.

Throughout their range, North American elk are often found in forest or forest-edge habitats of mountains, foothills, or canyon rangelands. Elk generally use higher elevation habitats in the summer and move to valleys and lower elevations during winter. The extent of seasonal migration is variable, with some elk found year-round within the same range, some moving only a few kilometers, and some migrating tens to hundreds of kilometers. During seasonal movements, males and females usually occupy separate herds, sometimes including hundreds and even thousands of individuals. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose that mainly browse on trees and shrubs, elk are mainly grazers, feeding on grass and forbs, but can also browse on leaves, bark and twigs, especially in the winter. Black bears, grizzly bears, wolves, cougars and coyote prey on calves, while adults are preyed upon mainly by wolves and cougars.

Throughout most of the year, North American elk are in single-sex groups, but during the autumn rut, bulls move towards female groups, compete for their attention using different advertisements, and try defending harems of 20 or more cows against other bulls and predators. Bulls advertise to cows using loud calls traveling long distances, called buggles, but also using their urine to soak themselves with a strong smell. Once a bull has attracted cows, he will chase off any subordinate bulls and engage in dominant displays, buggling and sparring antlers, and, in very last resort, in fighting. Usually, only prime age bulls (5-10 years) defend harems, while other less dominant bulls grasp any breeding opportunities they can in the surroundings of defended harems. Cows first breed in their second year and respond to bull advertisements by grouping into harems during the autumn rut. Cows normally carry a single calf born the following spring. Calves are born spotted, but loose all markings by the end of the summer. Calves join the female herd within two weeks, are fully weaned after two months, but will remain with their mothers for almost a year. Generally, wild elk live on average 10 to 13 years, but some live up to 20 years, with cows living longer than bulls.

Historically, North American elk populations have been reduced in number by over harvesting, especially large herds in the open Plains, and have been further reduced and some extirpated during European settlement. Today, elk populations have been restored and have followed an increasing trend, with North American elk populations recently estimated to be 1.2 million animals. Nevertheless, this is but a small fraction of the species historical abundance and distribution in North America.

Reference

Toweill DE, Thomas JW: North Amercian elk: ecology and management, 1st edn. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press; 2002.

 
Images provided below were obtained from the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History - North American Mammals. Available from http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/.
North American elk - male, bugling, left; female, right
Credit: painting by Elizabeth McClelland from Kays and Wilson's Mammals of North America, © Princeton University Press (2002)
Credit: Data provided by NatureServe in collaboration with Bruce Patterson, Wes Sechrest, Marcelo Tognelli, Gerardo Ceballos, The Nature Conservancy — Migratory Bird Program, Conservation International — CABS, World Wildlife Fund — US, and Environment Canada — WILDSPACE.
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